By the end of this chapter, students should understand:

 

Ø       the theory of liquidity preference as a short-run theory of the interest rate.

 

Ø       how monetary policy affects interest rates and aggregate demand.

 

Ø       how fiscal policy affects interest rates and aggregate demand.

 

Ø       the debate over whether policymakers should try to stabilize the economy.

 

CHAPTER OUTLINE:

 

I.          How Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand

 

A.         The aggregate-demand curve is downward sloping for three reasons.

 

1.         The wealth effect.

 

2.         The interest-rate effect.

 

3.         The exchange-rate effect.

 

B.         All three effects occur simultaneously, but are not of equal importance.

 

1.         Because a household’s money holdings are a small part of total wealth, the wealth effect is relatively small.

 

2.         Because imports and exports are a small fraction of U.S. GDP, the exchange-rate effect is also fairly small for the U.S. economy.

 

3.         Thus, the most important reason for the downward-sloping aggregate-demand curve is the interest-rate effect.

 

C.         Definition of theory of liquidity preference: Friedman’s theory that the interest rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.

 

D.         The Theory of Liquidity Preference

 

1.         This theory is an explanation of the supply and demand for money and how they relate to the interest rate.

 

2.         Money Supply

 

a.         The money supply in the economy is controlled by the Federal Reserve.

 

b.         The Fed can alter the supply of money using open market operations, changes in the discount rate, and changes in reserve requirements.

 

c.          Because the Fed can control the size of the money supply directly, the quantity of money supplied does not depend on any other economic variables, including the interest rate. Thus, the supply of money is represented by a vertical supply curve.

 

3.         Money Demand

 

a.         Any asset’s liquidity refers to the ease with which that asset can be converted into a medium of exchange. Thus, money is the most liquid asset in the economy.

 

b.         The liquidity of money explains why people choose to hold it instead of other assets that could earn them a higher return.

 

c.          However, the return on other assets (the interest rate) is the opportunity cost of holding money. All else being equal, as the interest rate rises, the quantity of money demanded will fall. Therefore, the demand for money will be downward sloping.

 

4.         Equilibrium in the Money Market

 

a.         The interest rate adjusts to bring money demand and money supply into balance.

 

b.         If the interest rate is higher than the equilibrium interest rate, the quantity of money that people want to hold is less than the quantity that the Fed has supplied. Thus, people will try to buy bonds or deposit funds in an interest-bearing account. This increases the funds available for lending, pushing interest rates down.

 

 

c.          If the interest rate is lower than the equilibrium interest rate, the quantity of money that people want to hold is greater than the quantity that the Fed has supplied. Thus, people will try to sell bonds or withdraw funds from an interest-bearing account. This decreases the funds available for lending, pulling interest rates up.

 

            E.         FYI: Interest Rates in the Long Run and the Short Run

 

            1.         It may appear that we have two theories of how interest rates are determined.

 

            a.         In an earlier chapter, we said that the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for loanable funds.

 

            b.         In this chapter, we proposed that the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money.

 

            2.         To understand how these two statements can both be true, we must discuss the difference between the short run and the long run.

 

3.         In the long run, the economy’s level of output, the interest rate, and the price level are determined by the following manner:

 

a.         Output is determined by the levels of resources and technology available.

 

b.         For any given level of output, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for loanable funds.

 

c.          Given output and the interest rate, the price level adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money. Changes in the supply of money lead to proportionate changes in the price level.

 

4.         In the short run, the economy’s level of output, the interest rate, and the price level are determined by the following manner:

 

a.         The price level is stuck at some level (based on previously formed expectations) and is unresponsive to changes in economic conditions.

 

b.         For any given price level, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money.

 

c.          The interest rate that balances the money market influences the quantity of goods and services demanded and thus the level of output.

 

F.         The Downward Slope of the Aggregate-Demand Curve

 

 

1.         When the price level increases, the quantity of money that people need to hold becomes larger. Thus, an increase in the price level leads to an increase in the demand for money, shifting the money demand curve to the right.

 

2.         For a fixed money supply, the interest rate must rise to balance the supply and demand for money.

 

3.         At a higher interest rate, the cost of borrowing and the return on saving both increase. Thus, consumers will choose to spend less and will be less likely to invest in new housing. Firms will be less likely to borrow funds for new equipment or structures. In short, the quantity of goods and services purchased in the economy will fall.

 

4.         This implies that as the price level increases, the quantity of goods and services demanded falls. This is Keynes’s interest-rate effect.

 

G.         Changes in the Money Supply

 

1.         Example: The Fed buys government bonds in open-market operations.

 

2.         This will increase the supply of money, shifting the money supply curve to the right. The equilibrium interest rate will fall.

 

3.         The lower interest rate reduces the cost of borrowing and the return to saving. This encourages households to increase their consumption and desire to invest in new housing. Firms will also increase investment, building new factories and purchasing new equipment.

 

4.         The quantity of goods and services demanded will rise at every price level, shifting the aggregate-demand curve to the right.

 

5.         Thus, a monetary injection by the Fed increases the money supply, leading to a lower interest rate, and a larger quantity of goods and services demanded.

 

H.         The Role of Interest-Rate Targets in Fed Policy

 

1.         In recent years, the Fed has conducted policy by setting a target for the federal funds rate (the interest rate that banks charge one another for short-term loans).

 

a.         The target is reevaluated every six weeks when the Federal Open Market Committee meets.

 

b.         The Fed has chosen to use this interest rate as a target in part because the money supply is difficult to measure with sufficient precision.

 

2.         Because changes in the money supply lead to changes in interest rates, monetary policy can be described either in terms of the money supply or in terms of the interest rate.

 

I.          Case Study: Why the Fed Watches the Stock Market (and Vice Versa)

 

1.         A booming stock market expands the aggregate demand for goods and services.

 

a.         When the stock market booms, households become wealthier, and this increased wealth stimulates consumer spending.

 

b.         Increases in stock prices make it attractive for firms to issue new shares of stock and this increases investment spending.

 

            2.         Because one of the Fed’s goals is to stabilize aggregate demand, the Fed may respond to a booming stock market by keeping the supply of money lower and raising interest rates. The opposite would hold true if the stock market would fall.

 

            3.         Stock market participants also keep an eye on the Fed’s policy plans. When the Fed lowers the money supply, it makes stocks less attractive because alternative assets (such as bonds) pay higher interest rates. Also, higher interest rates may lower the expected profitability of firms.

 

II.         How Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand

 

A.         Definition of fiscal policy: the setting of the level of government spending and taxation by government policymakers.

 

B.         Changes in Government Purchases

 

1.         When the government changes the level of its purchases, it influences aggregate demand directly. An increase in government purchases shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the right, while a decrease in government purchases shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the left.

 

2.         There are two macroeconomic effects that cause the size of the shift in the aggregate-demand curve to be different from the change in the level of government purchases. They are called the multiplier effect and the crowding-out effect.

 

D.         The Crowding-Out Effect

 

1.         The crowding-out effect works in the opposite direction.

 

2.         Definition of crowding-out effect: the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending.

 

3.         As we discussed earlier, when the government buys a product from a company, the immediate impact of the purchase is to raise profits and employment at that firm. As a result, owners and workers at this firm will see an increase in income, and will therefore likely increase their own consumption.

 

4.         If consumers want to purchase more goods and services, they will need to increase their holdings of money. This shifts the demand for money to the right, pushing up the interest rate.

 

 

5.         The higher interest rate raises the cost of borrowing and the return to saving. This discourages households from spending their incomes for new consumption or investing in new housing. Firms will also decrease investment, choosing not to build new factories or purchase new equipment.

 

6.         Thus, even though the increase in government purchases shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the right, this fall in consumption and investment will pull aggregate demand back toward the left. Thus, aggregate demand increases by less than the increase in government purchases.

 

7.         Therefore, when the government increases its purchases by $X, the aggregate demand for goods and services could rise by more or less than $X, depending on whether the multiplier effect or the crowding-out effect is larger.

 

E.         Changes in Taxes

 

1.         Changes in taxes affect a household’s take-home pay.

 

            a.         If the government reduces taxes, households will likely spend some of this extra income, shifting the aggregate-demand curve to the right.

 

            b.         If the government raises taxes, household spending will fall, shifting the aggregate-demand curve to the left.

 

2.         The size of the shift in the aggregate-demand curve will also depend on the sizes of the crowding-out effect.

 

a.         When the government lowers taxes and consumption increases, earnings and profits rise, which further stimulate consumer spending. This is the multiplier effect.

 

b.         Higher incomes lead to greater spending, which means a higher demand for money. Interest rates rise and investment spending falls. This is the crowding-out effect.

 

3.         Another important determinant of the size of the shift in aggregate demand due to a change in taxes is whether people believe that the tax change is permanent or temporary. A permanent tax change will have a larger effect on aggregate demand than a temporary one.

 

F.         FYI: How Fiscal Policy Might Affect Aggregate Supply

 

1.         Because people respond to incentives, a decrease in tax rates may cause individuals to work more, because they get to keep more of what they earn. If this occurs, the aggregate-supply curve would increase (shift to the right).

 

2.         Changes in government purchases may also affect supply. If the government increases spending on capital projects or education, the productive ability of the economy is enhanced, shifting aggregate supply to the right.

 

III.       Using Policy to Stabilize the Economy

 

A.         The Case for Active Stabilization Policy

 

1.         Example: The government reduces its spending to cut the budget deficit, lowering aggregate demand (shifting the curve to the left).

 

a.         The Fed can offset this government action by increasing the money supply.

 

b.         This would lower interest rates and boost spending, shifting the aggregate-demand curve back to the right.

 

2.         Policy instruments are often used in this manner to stabilize demand. Economic stabilization has been an explicit goal of U.S. policy since the Employment Act of 1946.

 

a.         One implication of the Employment Act is that the government should avoid being the cause of economic fluctuations.

 

b.         The second implication of the Employment Act is that the government should respond to changes in the private economy in order to stabilize aggregate demand.

 

3.         The Employment Act occurred in response to a book by John Maynard Keynes, an economist who emphasized the important role of aggregate demand in explaining short-run fluctuations in the economy.

 

4.         Keynes also felt strongly that the government should stimulate aggregate demand whenever necessary to keep the economy at full employment.

 

a.         Keynes felt that aggregate demand responds strongly to pessimism and optimism. When consumers are pessimistic, aggregate demand is low, output is low, and unemployment is increased. When consumers are optimistic, aggregate demand is high, output is high, and unemployment is lowered.

 

b.         It is possible for the government to adjust monetary and fiscal policy in response to optimistic or pessimistic views. This helps stabilize aggregate demand, keeping output stable at full employment.

 

5.         Case Study: Keynesians in the White House

 

a.         In 1961, President Kennedy pushed for a tax cut to stimulate aggregate demand. Several of his economic advisers were followers of Keynes.

 

b.         In 2001, President Bush created a tax cut to help the economy recover from the recession that had just begun.

 

 

B.         The Case against Active Stabilization Policy

 

1.         Some economists believe that fiscal and monetary policy tools should only be used to help the economy achieve long-run goals, such as low inflation and rapid economic growth.

 

2.         The primary argument against active policy is that these policy tools may affect the economy with a long lag.

 

a.         With monetary policy, the change in money supply leads to a change in interest rates. This change in interest rates affects investment spending. However, investment decisions are usually made well in advance, so the effects from changes in investment will not likely be felt in the economy very quickly.

 

b.         The lag in fiscal policy is generally due to the political process. Changes in spending and taxes must be approved by both the House and the Senate (after going through committees in both houses).

 

3.         By the time these policies take effect, the condition of the economy may have changed. This could lead to even larger problems.

 

C.         Automatic Stabilizers

 

1.         Definition of automatic stabilizers: changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate action.

 

2.         The most important automatic stabilizer is the tax system.

 

a.         When the economy falls into a recession, incomes and profits fall.

 

b.         The personal income tax depends on the level of households’ incomes and the corporate income tax depends on the level of firm profits.

 

c.          This implies that the government’s tax revenue falls during a recession. This tax cut stimulates aggregate demand and reduces the magnitude of this economic downturn.

 

3.         Government spending is also an automatic stabilizer.

 

a.         More individuals become eligible for transfer payments during a recession.

 

b.         These transfer payments provide additional income to recipients, stimulating spending.

 

c.          Thus, just like the tax system, our system of transfer payments helps to reduce the size of short-run economic fluctuations.